Ayse Melis Goksan

The indigenous people have been a part of the landscape long before the Spanish have arrived at America, and they are the true descendants of the original population. Thus, they feel more connected to the territory and their ancestry. As a community, they share social, cultural and political values, which also unites them through their history. 

In Chile, which is the biggest producer of lithium in the lithium triangle, mining actually predates colonisation by the Spanish and formed part of the Incan empire at a time before the territory was split. In the times of Inca (1450 AD) there was a symbiotic relationship of exchange, for which mining was done as part of a religious ritual. Similarly, agriculture was also a practice of ritual for the Inca. Through specific cycles they prepared the soil, cultivated crops, and finally collected harvest. They used water retention and drainage systems, and the stone retaining walls on the levelled agricultural terraces, which kept the roots of plants warm at night to expand the growing season. The agricultural terraces also kept moisture within the soil in dry periods, even six months after being irrigated. This base of knowledge is a product of farming in the region for about eleven thousand years. 

On the contrary, with the transformation to colonial mining (mid 16th c.), forced labor and extreme extractivism has suppressed such rituals and caused a disowning of lands of the indigenous. As a result of the colonial invasion, the land was transferred to State, which marks the beginning of a disowning of lands and embedded knowledge from indigenous peoples. The Pacific War created the present day borders of Chile, wherein some of the indigenous lands were annexed from Peru and Bolivia. The regions of Tarapacá and Antofagasta were acquired through this process in 1883. The Pinochet regime marks the beginnings in which land custodianship was affected severely. The focus on mining in the acquired northern region intensified in the 1980s under the neoliberal policies of Augusto Pinochet, beginning a new age of extractive colonialism that finalised the disbanding of custodianship or occupation from the royalties extracted from the earth.

Even today, the government doesn’t recognize the indigenous communities to the full extent, hence the indigenous towns in the Tarapaca and Antofagasta Region have disputes with the government and mining. Areas of historical value and natural protection are also constricted with mining. Today, the government owns 51% of Chile’s land and decides for the people. Communities are only considered third parties.

Even though consulting the indigenous for decisions about their livelihoods is a necessity under the ratification of ILO Convention No. 169, the government still has the last say. Sadly, the government is in full support of mining as it forms the backbone of the contemporary Chilean economy. However with the destruction to the environment and changes to indigenous livelihoods outside mining, a number of conflicts arose, often around territory and shared use of resources. Though there has been little success in acquiring title for indigenous that would give them total say over mining, ILO Convention No. 169 that was ratified in Chile in 2007 means that mining companies must enter into negotiation with local people on reducing impacts.

On top of that, the second article of ILO Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries of the International Labor Organization (ILO) states that “governments must assume the responsibility of developing, with the participation of the peoples concerned, a coordinated and systematic action with a view to protecting the rights of these peoples and guaranteeing respect for their integrity”. According to the sixth article, governments must consult the peoples concerned through appropriate procedures, and in addition to that, need to provide the means and resources to guarantee the full development of the initiatives of these people. In the case of mining projects, indigenous consultation takes place within the framework of the Environmental Impact Assessment System. Through consulting indigenous people who are affected, it leads to an agreement on the impacts of the project, mitigation and compensation measures.

The significant amount of brine extraction for lithium mining clearly has a correlation with the underground water. A company belonging to the State that is also owned by Chinese company Tianqi by 32%, SQM produces about 70,000 metric tons of lithium carbonate every year. Approximately 500,000 gallons of water goes into extracting one tonne of lithium, which means that the company needs to use at least 35 billion gallons of water per year to process its extractions. To be more exact with the above percentages, total percentage of surface and underground water add to 70.8 percent. Thus a total of 25 billion gallons of surface and underground water is used for this process. 

In the Antropological Report of the Atacameña Indigenous Communities of Tulor and Beter, there are records of grazers in the villages in the north of Salar de Atacama who state the lack of water through their experiences, resulting change in the well-known scenery. Movement through the pastoral lands have been a long-time tradition, still continued today, and being connected with the landscape through daily life, one can realize even the slight environmental changes. As can be seen here, the consequences of high levels of extraction and water use have been showing its long-term effects.

In order to act for indigenous rights against mining companies, the Consejo del Pueblos Atacameños (Council of Atacameño towns) was formed and now encompasses 20 communites, including Tulor and Beter, around the Atacama salt flat as an alliance where the community presidents gather to state their issues to mining companies and make decisions in a collective effort. Through indigenous consultation, the US firm Albemarle finally decided to fund 18 communities, which were members of the council at the time of the decision, 3.5% of its yearly lithium sales value to manage the salt plan, which is currently an equivalent of 50 million dollars per year. Today, those funds go directly to the communities without differentiation or financial control on spending. Money is split equally between each community, thus a large community like Tocanao receives the same amount as the small community of Camar. Communities spend their 2.7 million dollars in a useful way they decide upon, also reporting back to the company in how they use it.

Following the decision of Albemarle, SQM has conceded to pay royalties to the communities which are affected as well. Antofagasta is a region which holds mining as its most significant economic component, as it provides more than 50% of Chile’s GDP through the largest copper mine and in addition to lithium mining, with SQM as a major producer. The lithium extraction facilities of SQM are located in the Salar de Atacama, around which lie communities, also in need of freshwater resources. As the national mining company, SQM, extracted more brine than it was allowed to in 2019, the Council of Atacameño towns filed a lawsuit for the company to be held responsible for its environmental consequences. Finally, the company agreed to compensate for the damage by including an investment of $25 million to improve its monitoring system. However in this case, the management of money is quite different. The royalties provided by SQM will not be transferred directly to the community but is transferred through CORFO (Production Development Cooperation) with limitations set by the State. CORFO has divided 40 percent of this money in equal parts, 20 percent according to the population number and the remaining 40 percent according to distance of communities from SQM. Thus, though the state recognises indigenous land claims in part through this settlement, it still controls the use of those funds by dividing it in instalments and setting strict parameters for its use by communities. 

The revenues are distributed as follows: 5 million dollars are divided according to the amount of population, a total of 10 million dollars divided according to distance from SQM, and another 10 million dollars distributed in equal parts per community (550.000 dollars each). According to the distances measured from SQM to the communities, the five communities that are in closest proximity are Peine (37km), Camar (44km), Socaire (50km), Toconao (52km) and Talabre (54km), hence they receive a greater portion of the revenues. In regards to population, the most crowded towns are San Pedro (1940), Toconao (647), Solcor (620), Peine (475) and Socaire (303). In total, the four towns within close range to SQM fall in the top five portion with Peine and Toconao receiving approx. 1.9 million, and Socaire and Camar receiving approx. 1.6 million. Talabre is within top ten with approx. 1.4 million dollars.

The government has CONADI to support indigenous communities in multiple ways. Conadi, Corporación Nacional de Desarrollo Indígena (The National Corporation for Indigenous Development), is the institutional body through which the government already directs support for indigenous peoples in education, irrigation and drainage, water rights and land acquisition. There are strict rules to receive support, however some of the funds are quite substantial. Drainage works are done yearly and just last year, villages of Colchane, Huata, Pozo Almonte, Camina and Pica in the Tarapacá region received 14.5 million dollars in investment collectively. However, there are further examples which show that this support is not sufficient, considering the extensive tax money that the government collects from these territories. This can only do so little to contribute to the assessment and reversal of the substantial environmental cost of mining and the costs to future generations. 

However, besides promoting indigenous rights and trying to offer help in various subjects, CONADI also invests in initiatives which aim to enhance the current state. For example, in 2008, CONADI invested in a cultivation project in Toconce, which aimed to recover cultivation terraces to reactivate agriculture and promote tourism. The deteriorated and unused land of 3 hectares was cleaned and prepared for new cultivation. As a result, twenty families have worked to recover a part of the unused terraces and added to the twelve hectares already in use for planting. This is quite a significant act as the project also realizes that the cultivation of terraces is an ancestral method in traditional Atacameña agriculture, and aims to use this tradition in their own advantage. CONADI also aimed to attract tourists with this activation of terraces, in which visitors are welcomed to “get closer to the traditions of the native peoples”. Starting with the canal cleaning, the farmer families managed to begin cultivation of the land.

Considering such initiatives, the revenues received from mining companies can be put towards an indigenous development plan, to generate income for the indigenous communities in Salar de Atacama through the traditional methods of terrace farming of medicinal plants. This opportunity can result with a long-term plan that could grow over time.

Today only 4% of land is used for agriculture. In Antofagasta, contribution of agricultural livestock and forestry to Regional GDP is only 0,03%. Forage and medicinal plants are intensively cultivated in the region of Antofagasta, especially the areas around Salar de Atacama. Thus, medicinal plants have a huge potential, and the revenues from SQM can be used towards expanding this tradition.

The royalties received from mining companies can be put towards restoring existing local economies, like agriculture, as only 4% of land is used for agriculture. This project proposes a pilot indigenous development plan for Socaire and the other towns in part of Council of Atacameno towns, which will include studies on - plant types and land use, type of crops sold in the market and the amount of production for agriculture to be profitable. By improving and extending the use of land, the indigenous communities can claim their righteous lands and also coexist with mining activities.

In order to expand and enhance agriculture, 3 medicinal plants that can be found in both Tarapaca and Antofagasta regions are identified. Rica rica is a very common and aromatic shrub, which appears above 2,600 m of altitude and grows as a shrub. As for the medicinal properties, it can soothe stomach pains, lower blood pressure, help kidney ailments, coughs and it is also used to flavor tea and as a fuel. Brea is a perennial shrubby weed, common in low-irrigated growing areas. This plant is believed to be used since 9000 BC by hunter-gatherers for construction of the burial mounds. It has many uses which include as an anti-inflammatory, for cancer treatment, pest control, biofuel and structural use. In Quillagua, the main income activity of people is irrigated farming of Alfalfa which was much more intense at the past, but has been decreasing during the last decades because of the deterioration in water quality of the Rio Loa. The cultivation of Alfalfa in Northern Chile constitutes the agricultural work that reaches the highest altitude, since it can reach more than 3800 m.s.m. The plant is used as food, cough remedy, hair tonic and has potential for biodiesel. A field of this plant was also sighted near San Pedro de Atacama.

Other than becoming economically beneficial through their potential market value, the medicinal plants' environmental benefits and ease of their sustenance are to be considered. By extending the existing use of cultivated land and inviting more of these species, the environment can also benefit in the long-term. For the sake of the project, alfalfa will be prioritized as a potential source of economic income generator.

The aim of the project is to enhance the cultivation of alfalfa in the town of Socaire, where it is already grown in large quantities. This will provide an opportunity to generate economical autonomy for the indigenous community, as well as to continue traditional methods of terrace farming. In order to do that, analysis of the site and existing agriculture is necessary.

Socaire is located in the Puneño Floor of Tolar, about 3,600 m high and next to the hill Miscanti and lagoon of the same name. This settlement is surrounded by different kinds of terraces, which have been used for cultivation in ancient times, constructed on terrains of varied topographies. The original site of the village appears to have been in direct relation to the ancient and abundant waterways, yet the streams may shift route and the water availability today is scarce. Currently, the water is brought to the town by a canal from springs that have their origin in the high floors. A remarkable set of terraces of pre-Hispanic origin stands out, some reused and others modern, one of the most successful productive techniques used being the use of stepped terraces crossed by canals.

The terraces towards the left of Socaire go from 3150m to 3250m. Terrace farming can be sighted as an applied tradition, yet it is not used efficiently. In Chile, harvest is usually collected during months of March-April, however the cultivated terraces and the crops on the fields are quite scarce. This may be due to changing water resource availability in the area or fallowing the land for later use. 

Socaire shares the same Puneno floor with the 5 towns previously mentioned. Hence Socaire can serve as a case study for the other 4 towns in the same vegetational floor, Talabre, Peine, Toconao and Camar. It can be seen in the NDVI analysis that Toconao and Talabre show higher density of vegetation. Hence expanding the project to a larger region could lead to greater results. All towns have at least one water stream passing through. Adjusting the framework in Socaire according to the water streams will be crucial, as the streams may change in time.

The water stream analysis of Socaire identifies the streams with greater densities. A stream of order 5 passes across the town, however there is another stream to the south of the same value. Other streams of order 4 also exist surrounding the town, and further in the distance there are two streams with greater density. Hence the water can be redirected when necessary, with irrigation channels to flood the fields before water evaporates or filters down to subsoil. This traditional technique works efficiently with cultivated terraces, hence the terraces can hold adequate water for a longer duration of time.

Planting alfalfa has a few requirements. As it is known that Socaire already has some alfalfa plantations, the pH, potassium and phosphorous levels of the soil will be adequate. However, if this application will be expanded to other towns, it will be most beneficial to check first whether the soil pH is between 6.8 and 7.1. As the pH increases, the amount of nitrogen provided back to the soil decreases.

The seeds have to be planted about one centimetre below the well-drained soil surface. It is preferred to plant 300 seeds per square meter. Therefore, a field of 300 acres (1.2 km2), will require 360 million seeds. The distance between sown rows will be 20cm. The proposed locations for planting can be seen below.

All plants will be initially located within a 1.5km² area. Brea prefers to be placed near water, so it will be placed near the streams. As Alfalfa doesn’t favour a high-water table, it would be sufficient to plant Alfalfa in further proximity of the water source. The plant can survive through its deep roots once it sprouts, after a month of germination period. Rica rica prefers being exposed to sun and prefers dry land, therefore it can be planted in the outer edge of the terraces, towards the north.

Alfalfa will also reduce the amount of pesticides used if planted with other crops like corn, increasing the crops by 10-15%. Thus proper management can lead to further economical benefits. With its high yield levels and long stand life, Alfalfa crops can rapidly increase net profit. Planting in Springtime when there are no more frosts would be most applicable. In the Southern hemisphere this means late September or October. As most of the worldwide Alfalfa markets are in the Northern hemisphere, this can also propose an opportunity in exports with plant availability.

Even though the plant can remain for 4-10 years, Alfalfa should not be replanted in the same field at least for a year to prevent the allelopathic effect of the mature plants on the new plantings. Therefore once established, the terrace system can be expanded to neighbouring areas to both increase the crop yields and profitability, but also to provide a safer ground for new plantings.

In order to have a sense of the profitability, it is necessary to analyze similar case studies. A comprehensive study done for Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys in California has calculated the operating costs of Alfalfa production per acre as 1107 dollars per acre, and the total cost of production per acre as 1844 dollars (including the cultural, harvest, operating and overhead costs). The yearly net returns per acre above total costs is -269 dollars.

For 300 acres, 4 tons of yield can generate a net return of 219 dollars above operating costs. However, including total costs, in this case, would not generate a positive net return (-518 dollars). The breakeven point for 300 acres for net return above total costs would be about 6 tons (-2 dollars). Therefore, if planting Alfalfa for 300 acres, generating a yield higher than 6 tons should be targeted for positive net returns. The reason that other studies in Northern America were not taken into consideration is because California shows greater resemblance to climatic conditions of the considered area of Chile. Hence these calculated cost and returns can indicate a benchmark for production of Alfalfa in Chile.

Cost of seed itself is 4.5 dollars per pound (1 pound 450 grams). As there are 450 seeds per gram, a pound will include about 200.000 seeds. As 360 million seeds are preferred to be planted, the cost of seeds for a field of 300 acres would then be 8100 dollars. Hence it is preferred to plant 6 pounds per acre, yet this amount can go up to 20 pounds per acre. The total cost of production for 300 acres will be less or equal to 550 thousand dollars. Assuming a 6 tons crop for 300 acres, over at least 4 times of harvest during a year, this cost can be evened out. Depending on greater field density, greater profits can be expected in a shorter duration.

In regards to Brea and Rica rica, they are not currently grown in large quantities, hence no significant amount of information can be found in regards to the production or export of the plants. However, Brea offers an economical value other than being a medicinal plant: being a source of biofuel. Even though corn and sugarcane are accounted mostly for the production of biofuels, if Brea can be grown in larger amounts, it can propose an opportunity as a source of renewable energy supply for generating biofuels. 

Funding for this project will be through the revenues received from mining companies. Thus Socaire will use its 1.6 million dollars for an agricultural project to generate further income for the community. The project will provide the indigenous communities with economical benefits, as they are the true caretakers/custodians of the land. The newly planted areas will be sustained by the locals. For example, Brea planted by the existing agricultural field is in responsibility of the owners of the field. Labour will be in joint effort by the community. 

Alfalfa requires most careful attention when it is planted. It requires an occasional check for pests and disease. It can be cut yearly up to 8 times after it is grown, in monthly or 2 months intervals. If irrigation canals function properly, the plants will not require supplementary watering. Therefore once grown, labour will only consist of the collection of plants, not more than 3 hours a day with necessary equipment. Less than 10 people can cover the area of 1.5km2, over a week.

Trade of medical plants is an expansive market that could expand through the country and even worldwide. The wide range of plants can be collected under a co-operative and local trade can be generated. It can even span in greater areas, to surrounding towns of Peine, Talabre, Toconao, Camar, and then beyond to the area of San Pedro.

In that scenario, by expanding the planted area, the excess crops can be collected and first brought to Toconao. Then the collected crops can be carried to San Pedro de Atacama, for selling at the market. No more than 5 people will be necessary for the preparation, transportation and selling of goods. The women and man can incorporate together and work as a foundation for the community of the farmers, so that the community can benefit. Additionally, every year there is a tradition of cleaning of the canals in Spring. After preparing the additional irrigation canals, the maintenance of the canals can be done in a collective effort. 

The indigenous communities wish to make their own decisions and for that, they have to sustain themselves economically first. As there is Global demand for these plants, especially for alfalfa, the plants can furthermore be exported. The collective earnings can again be used for the benefit of the community in continuing indigenous traditions of agriculture.

Through this joint effort, agriculture becomes a way to maintain traditional practices, cultural identity, take care of the land, while providing mediation between mining and living. Expanding agriculture will also create a field of jobs for future generations. The cultivated lands of this country are as valuable as the extracted lands of minerals. It is for the communities to sustain themselves.

Shifting towards the traditional methods and indigenous techniques makes it possible to learn from the past to prepare for the future. The use of agricultural terraces and irrigation systems decrease the required maintenance by keeping greater moisture within the soil for longer periods. Directing the revenues from the mining companies towards this project would not only enhance existing agriculture, but also ease the collection and distribution of medicinal plants and propose a collective way to improve the indigenous way of living.

The town of Socaire offers a fertile land for the project to grow, with adequate distribution of water on multiple levels of land. NDVI analysis shows the existing vegetation in the region and water stream analysis locates the density of the existing water sources that feed into the land. The use of satellite imagery and GIS software aided in realizing and marking the differences in the land over time. The selected area for the growth of Alfalfa, Brea and Rica rica is an area between existing streams and agrees with the conditions necessary for the growth of the plants. Additional irrigation channels can be opened to directly supply a greater area with water. All of the plants are quite low maintenance, yet require some checking for pests and disease during growth periods.

The government has placed restrictions towards the revenues received from SQM. The total amount of money was distributed according to certain criteria, like distance to SQM and density of population. However most importantly, the one condition for the government to not directly provide the money to communities was that the communities can put this money towards good use. Thus, if Socaire uses its 1.6 million dollars for a project to generate further income, and if this projects also expands in a greater area, the government will certainly allow this development plan. In that case, the 5 towns can collectively use their 8.5 million dollars in a joint effort.

Further possibilities are also investigated in how the plants can be used other than for trade. All of these plants can be used for biodiesel, and especially Brea. Alfalfa and Rica rica can be traded locally for nutritious and medicinal properties. If Alfalfa crops receive higher yields, it can also be traded globally.

It is estimated that initiating a project like this would not cost more than 500.000 dollars and will offer a breakeven within a year. Hence the revenues received from SQM will be more than enough. The communities can also work mutually to generate biodiesel from excessive crops.

The government has some projects to support indigenous groups, yet these projects are only limited to a certain area. The project for terraces of Toconce was only aimed for the benefit of Toconce, and it wasn’t repeated in a larger scale. The town of Socaire serves as an example for the surrounding towns that are also in similar conditions and in close proximity to mining. If this project can be managed in a collective effort, then it has the potential to grow and expand to the surrounding areas.

The proposed methods can serve as an example for other communities in the area such as Toconao, Talabre Camar and Peine for an effective and collective way to use the revenues from mining companies to gain economic autonomy from the system of mining.